Reading Skills - Process, Purposes, Models, Strategies

1.           Process of Reading

Pre-reading---- Knowledge of ideas, Facts etc.

 

 

 

 

 

1.

·         understanding meaning

·         Putting it in context 

·         Reconstructing the whole idea                                       

presented by the                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                   author                                                                                  

 1.Referring to the present

                                                                                              

                                                                                    2 . Fusing new knowledge

                                                                                                   with old knowledge

                                                                                                 for better understanding

                                                                                                 and good recall                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                               

 

Reading the lines                                Reading between the lines

 What has he actually written?         Does he really mean                                              

What are the facts?                             what he says?

How are they related?                        Is he saying more     

                                                                than he has written?

                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                 

                                                                

                                                                                                        

                                                                                                             Evaluation

 

1.     Pre-reading – Early in life, we acquire a working knowledge of our mother tongue by hearing the elders communicate among themselves and with us. We pick up the phonemes (sounds) of the language. We also learn how to combine them into larger units like syllables and words. Our exposure to the language equips us with some vocabulary of the language. We become familiar with the syntactic structures of the language and the basics of its grammar.

We also acquire some knowledge of the concepts that we come across in our daily life.

Exposure to their communication also equips us with the ability to reason and draw inferences from what has been explicitly stated.

In short, we are able to use language for common day-to-day purposes.

This oral linguistic competence is a pre-requisite for learning how to read. It proves to be of great use to us when we begin to learn how to read.

In addition to that, by seeing people read, we learn a good many things about reading.

I.                   We learn that what we speak can be represented on paper by making some marks.

II.                 We learn also what print or writing looks like.

III.              We learn also that these marks can be reconverted into speech.

IV.              We come to know whether our language is read from right to left or from left to right.

2.      Phonological Awareness

With the passage of time, early familiarity with the sound system of the language develops into a strong awareness. We become aware that the continuous flow of speech can be broken up into words, syllables and phonemes (Individual sounds). We not only gain a complete knowledge of the phonemes used but also master the skill of articulating them. The ability to articulate them becomes the foundation stone of the future reading ability. The ability to combine the phonemes into larger units and to divide the larger units into phonemes is crucial to reading and spelling. Without it, it is impossible to learn how to read. 

3.     Using Phonics to recognise words

The first formal step towards reading is the learning of phonics. We begin to recognize the shapes of the letters of the alphabet and the sounds they represent. Then we learn to combine these letters to form words. We also learn the rules of word structure – the morphology of the language. We learn the skill of deriving new words by affixing prefixes and suffixes to the roots. We also become aware of the meanings of the suffixes and prefixes and the rules which govern the morphological process.

By using our knowledge of vocabulary, we begin to recognise words quickly. Here, it is important to realise that we do not apply these rules to each word in order to recognise it. We become familiar with the shapes of the words and just a look at them is enough to recognise them. If we were to apply the rules of structure to each individual word, that would hinder the process of reading and we will not be able to read fluently. This is especially true of regularly used words. Their shapes are committed to memory so well that immediate recognition becomes possible. Even unknown words are recognised easily if the morphemes that make them up are already known. Mastery of the rules of structure and their repeated application helps us to automatically recognise the words by seeing them. This helps us to concentrate on meaning. It is here that comprehension begins.

4.     Comprehension of Literal Meaning by Using Knowledge of Vocabulary, Syntax and Grammar

Using our knowledge of vocabulary to comprehend the meaning of the text is the next step. Word meanings are the key component of comprehension. 70 to 80% of comprehension depends on the meanings of the words. Part of our vocabulary is acquired through direct instruction and part of it is acquired through independent reading and listening.

We also use our knowledge of syntax and grammar to determine the meaning of what we read

5.     Achieving Fluency in Reading

We do not read words singly. For fluent reading, we read them in groups jumping from one group to another. Fixing our eyes on one word at a time would make our pace very slow. Decoding of semantic and syntactic meaning is done simultaneously. We also try to guess the meaning of unfamiliar words with the help of the context and environment. Reading fluently and comprehension are simultaneous processes.

Reading in turn expands our vocabulary and thus speeds up comprehension. Speedy comprehension and fluency are achieved through extensive independent reading. It helps us to master automatic recognition and decoding skills.

6.     Interpreting

Determining literal meaning is only one part of comprehension. Drawing inferences and making deductions is the other part. We try to read between the lines and see the meaning hidden behind the words. By using what has been explicitly stated, we try to make out the implied meaning. Understanding the literal meaning and making inferences go on side by side. They are not sequential but simultaneous.

As we read, we also try to establish cohesive links between the different parts of the text. We try to understand how different sentences, paragraphs and sections of the text are related to one another and how the information has been organised into a well-structured whole.

7.     Association

At the same time, we use our previous knowledge and experience to determine the meaning of what we are reading. We compare and contrast the current information with the information that we already have and the knowledge that our own experiences have taught us. We interpret the new information in the light of the old information and fuse the one with the other. This helps us to understand the meaning in a better way, retain it longer and recall it whenever we need it.

8.     Evaluation

The next step in reading is to attempt an appreciation of what we have read. We try to understand the purpose of the author and to decide whether the purpose with which we had started reading the text has been achieved or not. We assess the quality and worth of the information as well as its presentation.

We try to judge how useful the information can be to us and to the society in general, whether it is conservative or progressive, constructive or destructive, reformative, revolutionary or rebellious, convincing or unconvincing, in agreement with what we already know or different, adequate or inadequate.

At the same time, we try to judge whether the information has been presented in a well organised manner or in a chaotic way, whether the presentation is crude or artistic. We also evaluate the language used as the vehicle of information – whether it is simple and easy or difficult and complicated, whether it is appropriate to the targeted audience or not, whether it is idiomatic, flowery and aesthetically beautiful or not. The last stage in the process of reading is this critical evaluation of what we have read.

2      Purposes of Reading

Reading is a purposeful activity. We never read without a purpose. However, the purpose is not the same each time that we sit down to read. Our purpose may vary from time to time. Similarly, everyone does not read with the same purpose. The purpose of reading may differ from individual to individual. Broadly speaking, we read either for pleasure or for obtaining knowledge or information.

Reading for pleasure

Sometimes, we read only to entertain ourselves. Our aim is not to add to our existing knowledge or to gain any new information but to enjoy, to have fun. It is true, however, that even when we read for pleasure, we are, at the same time, getting some kind of information. We can never read without getting some kind of information. But gaining knowledge is not our primary aim. Whatever knowledge we gather is just secondary and incidental.

While reading for pleasure, we do not need to understand the meaning of every word and every sentence in the text. We can afford to ignore some words, phrases, sentences or even paragraphs if, even without understanding their meaning, we are able to follow the general line of the narrative or the argument. Hundred percent understanding of the text is not necessary.

Reading for Knowledge

There are occasions, however, when we read to gain information or knowledge. We read because we want to widen the horizons of our mind, to enlarge the store of our knowledge by adding new knowledge to the knowledge that we already possess. We may want to add to our knowledge of a subject about which we already have some knowledge or our purpose may be to get knowledge of a new subject about which we know nothing.

Even when we are reading for knowledge, our purpose may have different shades.

                     I.        We may read only to gain a general impression of the contents of the text. If so, we can afford to read at a fast pace. We need not even read every line of the text. We may only scan or sample it.

                   II.        Our purpose, may be to locate a particular piece of information. Again, we need not read the text thoroughly. We can just scan it if we read with this purpose.

                  III.        We may also read to understand the central theme of a piece of writing. A quick reading is enough if we read with this purpose.

                  IV.        Again, we may read as an intellectual exercise to develop an alert and critical attitude. Hundred percent comprehension is not required if we read with this goal in mind.

                   V.        Sometimes, our objective is to distinguish facts from fiction or just opinions or arguments.

                            VI.            We can read a text also to identify its scope and limitations i.e. to determine the areas of the topic that the text covers and the aspects which it does not attempt to cover.

                VII.        On many occasions, we study a text deeply with a view to achieving a detailed and critical understanding of not only of its contents but also of the manner of presentation of the contents. When our purpose is to study a text to understand every bit of information in it, we read at a slow pace. We try not only to understand all that is stated but also to infer what is implied. We read the lines, we read between the lines and even beyond the lines.

              VIII.        Sometimes, we read in order to evaluate a text. Our aim is to assess the worth of the information and author’s skill in presenting it. We try to judge whether the information given is conservative, progressive or reformative, whether it is constructive or destructive, moral or immoral, conformist or revolutionary, useful for the society or not. At the same time, we try to judge whether the presentation of the matter is artistic or crude, whether the matter is well organised or presented in a chaotic manner, whether the language used is clear, unambiguous and idiomatic or not. To be able to do so, we have to study and understand all that is presented in the text but also to interpret it in the light of our previous knowledge and compare and contrast it with what we already know. We may have even to read it more than once in order to get under the surface and fish out all that does not appear there when we read it the first time.

                  IX.        There are also some people who read a text to benefit from the knowledge and experience of the author and grow wiser. To them, reading is a means to acquiring more and more wisdom of the world so that they may be able to go through life smoothly and win the appreciation of their fellow beings. They read it slowly and devote time to reflecting over the contents after they have read it.

2.   Reading Models

Definition: A reading model is a graphic attempt “to depict how an individual perceives a word, processes a clause and comprehends a text.” In other words, it tries to lay down whether we process the textual information provided by the text first and then relate it to our previous knowledge or we recall our previous knowledge and experience first and then try to read and process the new text and the information provided by it in the light of that knowledge and experience.

Scholars have presented three different reading models which are being discussed below.

1.   Top Down Model       

·         This model gives more importance to what the reader brings to the text.

·         According to it, reading begins in the mind of the reader. The previous knowledge and experiences of the reader are more important than the information contained in the text. The reader begins by recalling his previous knowledge and he interprets the current text in the light of this knowledge and those experiences.

·         The reader proceeds from the whole to the part. He first recalls the information that he already possesses and then proceeds to preview the text in order to have an overall idea of what it contains. Reading the text line by line and comprehending the textual meaning by following the semantic and syntactic cues is the last thing on his agenda.

Previous knowledge and experiences

 

Previewing the text to get a general idea of the contents

through skimming, scanning or sampling

 

 

Reading the text (Letters, words, phrases sentences

Decoding the semantic and syntactic cues and

Understanding the textual meaning

2.    Bottom up Model

·         This model gives greater importance to the printed text.

·         According to it, comprehension of the text begins by processing the smallest linguistic unit and moves on to the larger units.

·         The reader proceeds from the part to the whole. He identifies the letters and the sounds they stand for, combines the sounds into syllables and words, sees how the words are arranged into phrases, clauses and sentences

·          

·                                                                     Identifying the letters and the phonemes they stand for

Syllables

 

Words

Phrases

Sentences

Paragraphs

 

Text

Previous knowledge and experiences

3.     Interactive Model

Linguistic scholars also point out that in actual practice, we follow neither the top down model nor the bottom up model. Both these models are followed simultaneously. As we read the text, we keep decoding the semantic and syntactic meaning while at the same time applying our previous knowledge to the understanding of the current text. We keep moving from the one to the other all the time we are engaged in reading.

3. Reading Strategies

In order to get the maximum benefit out of our reading, we make use of a large number of strategies. These strategies enable us to read faster, comprehend more efficiently and retain the information longer and be able to recall it at will. Some of these strategies are listed below.

1.   Determining the Purpose

The first thing that we do is determine the purpose of our reading. We decide whether we are reading for pleasure or for gathering some kind of information. If we are reading for information, we have also decide whether we want to study the text deeply trying to understand every aspect of the information, or just to get a general idea of the contents. We may even be reading in order to locate a particular piece of information. The time we need to devote and the speed at which to read depends on the purpose of reading.

2.     Planning

First of all, we plan what we want to read. The decision depends on the information we need and the purpose with which we want to read.

3.     Framing Questions

When reading for information, we frame questions to which we want to find answers. Then, as we read, we try to find answers to those questions.

4.   Proper Time

Depending on how deeply we want to go into the text, we have to decide how much time we need to read it. We must give ample time to read a text in order to fully appreciate its value.

On the other hand, we also have to consider how much time we have at our disposal. We have to decide the reading speed and technique according to the time available to us.

5.   Preparing Our Own Table of Contents

We may not want to read the contents in the order in which they are given. We can decide the order in which we want to read them and prepare our own table of contents.

6.   Activating Previous knowledge

After getting a general idea of the contents, we can recall all the relevant previous information that we have relating to the topic that the text deals with. It helps us to understand the text more effectively and more quickly.

7.   Previewing

Before we start reading, we have a quick glance at it and try to have a general idea of its contents. We may scan or sample it to prepare ourselves for reading it. This helps us to understand the contents faster and more efficiently.

8.   Eye fixations and Their Duration

We cannot read fast enough if we read one word at a time. Actually, we cover several words at a time. To read fast, we have to cover as many words as possible in one eye fixation and thus reduce the number of fixations. At the same time, we try to reduce the duration of fixations. These skills are mastered through practice.

9.   Using Context

We do not consult the dictionary to find the meaning of every new word. If possible, we try to understand its meaning by using the context. If we are not reading for a thorough understanding, we may even sometimes ignore them if we can follow the general line of argument or narrative without knowing their meaning.

10.      Predicting

To achieve fluency, we try to predict what is coming next. We read one word and try to guess what will come next. The same is true of phrases, sentences, paragraphs and different sections.

11.      Word Attack Strategies

To understand the meaning of words, we also use word attack strategies. We divide the words into morphological constituents – roots, prefixes and suffixes – and thus try to make out their meaning.

12.      Paraphrasing

To achieve a better comprehension of the contents, we can rephrase a sentence or phrase in different words of our own. 

13.      Inferring

As we read what is there on the page, we also try to draw inferences, make deductions and understand that part of the meaning which is implied but not explicitly stated.

14.      Highlighting

We highlight the important information as we read by underlining it or by using a highlighter so that we may be able to locate it easily when we need to.

15.      Taking Notes

We keep taking notes as we read. We may note down the important information on a piece of paper, in a note book or even in the margins of the text.

We may even take graphic notes organising the information in different ways as for example in a pyramid or inverted pyramid form or in the form of a graph or a table etc.

16.      Prioritising Information

All the information that we get is not equally important and useful. We can decide which part of it is more important and which is relatively unimportant and arrange it in the order of importance.

17.          Visualising

As we read, we use our imagination and try to see with the mind’s eye what we are being told in the text.

18.      Questioning the Text

We do not blindly accept what we are told. We sometimes question the information provided by the text. We reflect on the challenges that the text poses to our attitude towards life, our political, religious, and other kinds of beliefs and opinions. We may even put a tick mark or a cross even as we agree or disagree with the author.

19.      Asking Questions

As we read, we also keep asking questions and trying to find answers to those questions. These questions keep us focused on the reading and do not allow our attention to wander.

20.      Stop and Monitor

After reading a part of the text, a paragraph or a section, we can stop for a while and review what we have read. Such monitoring allows us to repair our comprehension, to revise what we have learnt and to retain it longer.

21.      Think Aloud

Every now and then, you may stop and try to tell yourself aloud what you have read so far. It helps not only in better comprehension but also in longer retention

22.      Use the Glossary

Many texts contain a glossary of words and technical terms at the end where their meaning is explained. We must make proper use the glossary instead of rushing to the dictionary every time we come across something that we do not understand. It saves much time and labour.

23.      Re-read the Text

If need be, re-read the text to make sure that you have understood everything and understood it correctly. It gives you a chance to repair your comprehension and retain the information for a long time.

24.      Summarise

After completing your reading, use the notes that you have taken and write a summary of what you have read. By doing so, you are able to internalise it more efficiently and remember it for a long time.

25.      Critically Evaluate

After finishing the reading, attempt a critical assessment of the text you have read. Try to form a judgement about the worth and value of its contents as well to appreciate the manner of presentation.

26.      Extensive Reading

Read extensively in order to become a better and more efficient reader. The more you read, the more you will master the art of efficient reading. Practice is the only way to achieve perfection in everything.

27.      Know What Works for You

Every individual is a different individual. What works for one person may not work for another. You are the best judge of which strategy is more effective in your case. Choose the strategy which you thin

k is most effective in your case.

Listening Skills

1. The Process of listening

Listening means receiving an oral message, decoding and understanding it and conveying our response in the form of feedback. For listening to be successful and effective, the message which the listener gets should exactly be the same as intended by the speaker.

a.    Listening and Hearing

These two terms are normally taken to be synonymous but in reality, there is a great difference between the two.

Hearing is a passive condition in which the hearer plays no role. It happens automatically and spontaneously. Whenever a sound is produced within our hearing range, the vibrations caused in the air reach our ears and are carried to the brain by the nerves. Whatever decoding is there is only incidental. The listener does not make any conscious effort to receive the sound waves or to decode and interpret them in order to understand their meaning. Most of the time, the hearer does not even react to them. It is only when these waves signal some kind of emergency that there is some reaction or response.

Listening, on the other hand, is a conscious and deliberate chain of activities on the part of the listener. The listener makes a conscious effort to receive the sound waves, to recognise them, to decode them and understand their meaning. He even uses the situational and textual context to get at the meaning, relates the message to his previous knowledge and experiences and evaluates it. There is also a reaction and response which is given as feedback to the original sender of the message. We can do nothing to improve our hearing, but it is possible to improve listening by following certain practices and by practising.

Not listening to a person who is speaking to you is an insult to the person who is speaking. It signals that either the information he is giving is not important or it is not relevant to your purpose, or perhaps he is not good at communicating the message.

b.   Process of Listening

Listening is a process which consists of the following steps:

Reception          Perception         Comprehension       Association        Evaluation             

 

                                            Response or feedback

                                                   

1. Reception - Reception is the first step in listening. We make a careful attempt to catch the sound waves and recognise them as the phonemes of the language being used. Then we use our knowledge of the phonology of the language to combine them into syllables, words and sentences. Speech is a long and continuous chain of sounds. We now try to divide it by drawing word boundaries.

2. Perception - After having received the message, we proceed to decode its meaning. We recall the meaning of the words used if they are familiar or we try to guess it from the context if they are not already known. In addition to the word meanings, we look at the arrangement of the words in sentences and try to get their syntactic meaning. Thus we arrive at the literal meaning of the message.

3. Comprehension - Next, we proceed to figure out the implied meaning. We draw inferences from what has been stated and try to get the meaning which is intended but has not been explicitly stated. We relate what we hear to the context - both textual and situational - and try to understand what meaning the utterance can convey in the given context. In different contexts, the same utterance can have different meanings. We try to ascertain whether the words are to be taken at their face value or there is some deeper meaning hidden behind them.

4. Association - At this stage, we try to interpret the message in the light of the knowledge and information that we already possess and our experiences in the past. We compare the new information we are receiving with the previous information.. The previous information may support it or contradict it. Or it may help us to see in a different light.

5. Evaluation - After having understood the information provided in its entirety, we try to evaluate it. We consider it critically and try to assess its value for us, for others, for the world at large. We examine its quality. We frame judgments. We may find it to be just routine information or excellent or admirable. We may appreciate it or condemn or oppose it. 

6. Response - After a thorough understanding of the message, we react to it and assess our response to the information we have received. Are we going to perform the action we have been told to perform? Do we agree with it do we differ with it? Do we admire it or condemn it? In some situations, we may even be called upon to convey our response, to give feedback. With the feedback, one cycle of communication is completed. If, required, another cycle can be started.

2. Barriers to Listening

Complete success in oral communication is very rare. Most of the time, it is partial. However, the degree of success may vary from very low to very high. There are many factors which prevent the listener from getting the message conveyed by the speaker in all its totality. These factors are known as barriers to listening

We can divide these barriers into two broad categories: physical and psychological

Physical Barriers:

1. Distance - Distance between the speaker and the listener is a major barrier to listening. The speaker may be located at a place far away from the speaker and thus may not be able to hear his voice at all or to hear it clearly.

Try to be as close to the speaker as possible.

1.   Noise in the Surroundings: Successful listening is possible only in a calm and peaceful atmosphere. If there is any kind of physical noise in the vicinity of the listener or even of the speaker, it interferes with our listening. We may fail to receive a part or sometimes even the whole of the message. People around the two participants in the oral communication may be talking or a dog may be barking nearby. Vehicles on the road may be making a noise. The television may be on or the phone may begin to ring. Any kind of noise around the participants can stand in the way of the successful reception of the message.

Eliminate the noise or do not pay attention to it.

2.   Distractions: There can be a whole lot of things that can take the listener's attention away from what is being said. Something falling on the ground, the entry of a person in the room or the beep of the smart phone can distract one from what is being conveyed and reduce the degree of success in listening.

Try to focus on the speaker and ignore the distracting noises.

3.     Weather Conditions: Weather conditions like excessive heat or cold which make the listener uncomfortable can also prevent him from paying complete attention to the words of the speaker.

Try to make the temperature of the place comfortable.

4.   Overcrowding and Stuffiness: If the room is overcrowded and there is not adequate ventilation, it may become hard even to breathe properly, leave aside listening with complete focus. Perfect listening is possible when the conditions at the place are congenial to listening. Any thing that makes the listener feel ill at ease upsets him and makes him unfocused.

Let there be sufficient space for the listeners.

5.     Physical State of the Listener: The physical condition of the speaker also can become a barrier to listening. If the listener has been working hard and is fatigued or is running fever or feeling sleepy because he has not been able to have full sleep out the previous night, these physical conditions will not allow him to listen with complete attention.

Try to stay fresh when you have to attend a talk/lecture.

7. Bad Acoustics: Bad acoustics of the place can also impede proper listening. If the place is not echo proof and the voice of the speaker keeps resounding, the listener will not be able to hear properly.

Make sure that the acoustics of the place are good and the sound does not echo.

6.     Faulty Public Address System: Faulty Public Address System can distort the voice of the speaker or can result in unwanted noises which make it impossible for the listener to catch the speaker's words clearly.

Ensure that the P.A. system works well and does not make any unwanted noises.

7.     Speech Faults: If the speaker does not speak clearly, mumbles, speaks in a very low voice or suffers from some kind of speech defect, the listener will be put at a disadvantage as he may not get some of his words correctly.

We cannot help. Just be extra attentive and try to understand the nature of the fault.

Psychological Barriers

1. Hearing Emotional Noises: Some word used by the speaker or an idea expressed by him may arouse some kind of a strong emotion like anger, grief, excitement or disgust in the listener. If the listener allows himself to be overpowered by the emotion, his mind will lose focus and he will not be able to listen properly.

Stay calm. Do not allow any emotions to be aroused.

8.     Focusing on a Personal Agenda: If the listener keeps his mind focused on his own agenda like what question he is going to ask or how he is going to embarrass the speaker, he will be unable to listen properly.

Try not to have any personal agenda. Focus on what the speaker says and try to understand it.

Just

9.      Criticising: If the listener pays more attention to finding faults with what the speaker says and how he says it, he will not be able to pay due attention to his words and will not be able to get the message right.

Postpone all judgement till the speaker has finished.

1.     Speech Rate V/S Thought Rate: We can think much faster than we can speak. As a result, the listener is able to process what the speaker says in a fraction of the time that the speaker takes to say it. That leaves with some mental time. If he begins to devote that time to something other than listening, he will not be able to focus fully on what the speaker says and will miss much of the content of his speech or misunderstand what he says.

Do not let your attention wander away from the speaker if you have any spare time.

5. Lack of Interest: There are many things which can result in the listener not having interest in what the speaker is telling him. 

i. He may feel that the information being given by the speaker is not of any use to him.

ii. He may have the feeling that the he knows much more than the speaker and he cannot tell him anything new.

iii. He may have a poor opinion of the speaker and his knowledge.

iv. He may feel that he already knows everything that the speaker is going to say. 

v. He may feel that only a part of what the speaker is going to say is of interest to him. So he may be selective in his listening.

Without interest in the speaker's matter, no one can pay perfect attention to what he says.

Whatever your opinion of the speaker and of your own knowledge, always remember that even the worst of speakers may have something useful to tell you and you do not know everything in the world. Be attentive all the time because you never know when the speaker may say something precious.

2.     Emotional State of Mind: If the listener is experiencing some strong emotion like anger, grief or excitement when he comes to the talk, he will not be able to concentrate. His state of mind will not allow him to listen.

Make sure that you have a calm mind when you go to listen to a talk/lecture.

7; Mental Distractions: The listener may be mentally preoccupied with other things. He may be worried due to some problem in the family or his mind may be in some other important business. He may be with the speaker only physically and somewhere else mentally. In that case, he will not pay proper attention to what the speaker says.

Do not allow your mind to wander. Try to be present not only physically but also mentally all the time. Postpone all the other concerns for the time that you are listening to a talk.

1.     Filtering: The listener may choose to pay attention to only those things which he is interested in and ignore the remaining things. Thus he will filter out much of the information that the speaker gives.

Listen to everything. Filtering, if any, should be done after the talk is over.

2.     Perceptual Errors: Understanding is a personal matter and varies from person to person. So the listener may downplay much that the speaker thinks is important or give more emphasis to what may appear to be unimportant to the speaker. Also the listener's perception of what the speaker says may be different from that of the speaker. Consequently, the message that he gets is different from the one intended by the speaker. 

Try to get the point of view of the speaker while you are listening. Postpone your own interpretation till the speaker has finished.

3.     Not Investing Time: The listener may not give due time to get all that the speaker says. He may listen to a thing and then make his own assumptions or he may listen to only the main points and ignore the details. Such a thing can lead to misunderstanding.

Devote all your time to the listener and try to hear and understand every word that he says.

4.     Stereotyping and Generalising: The listener may, after getting to know about the class of people to which the speaker belongs, form a stereotypical image of him and assume that since all the people of that class say a certain type of things, he too will say the same things. As a result, he may choose not to pay attention to him.

Avoid stereotyping and generalising. Every individual is a different individual and may not be different from the class to which he/she belongs.

5.     Overloading: If the speaker's talk is overloaded with information, the listener may find it difficult to internalise all that he says. A lecture packed with meaning may make more demands from him than he can cope with. The overabundance of meaning can totally overwhelm him and confuse him instead of enlightening him.

The speaker should keep in mind the intellectual level of the audience and not overload his/her talk with meaning.

6.     Status Consciousness: Status consciousness can also become a hindrance to listening. Because of it, a senior may not pay proper attention to a suggestion made by a junior thinking that he knows better than the junior. Similarly, a junior may become nervous when somebody much senior to him speaks to him and as a result, he may not be able to grasp all that he says.

Forget all about the status of the speaker. Even a junior may sometimes have something valuable to say.

                        

  These and a lot more things can prevent the speaker's message from reaching the listener. The quality of one's listening will be directly proportionate to the extent to which one is able to overcome these barriers. It is therefore advisable to get over all these things to become a good listener.