Unit 8 - Speaking Skills

Unit VIII

Speaking Skills

1.   Speech Sounds and Phonemes,

Speech Sounds – Speech sounds are the sounds used in any known language of the world which human speech organs are capable of articulating. The number of speech sounds used in various languages is very large but no language makes use of all of them. Every language makes use of a finite set of these sounds selective from this large repertory. Speech sounds are divided into two broad categories – consonants and vowels. Every language uses some consonants and some vowels to form the larger units known as syllables and words.

Phonemes: When we talk of these sounds in general without reference to any particular language, we call them simply speech sounds. But when we talk of the speech sounds used by a particular language, the way they behave in that language and the rules according to which they combine to form larger units like syllables and words, they are known as the phonemes of that language. So phonemes are the speech sounds used by a specific language.

 

2.   Speech Mechanism and the Organs of Speech

 

 

Speech Mechanism –

Speech mechanism is the collective name given to all those organs of the body which play a role in the articulation of speech sounds. It includes the chest muscles, the lungs, the trachea (wind pipe), the larynx, the pharynx (throat area) the vocal cords, the tongue, the palate, the teeth, the lips and the nose. It may be said that the primary purpose of these organs is something other than the production of speech sounds but it is also true that their speech function is as important as their primary functions.

Speech organs and their role in speech production

The speech mechanism can be divided into three distinct systems – the respiratory system, the phonatory system and the articulatory system. The respiratory system includes the chest muscles, the lungs and the trachea. The phonatory system comprises the larynx and the vocal cords located inside it and the articulatory system consists of the pharynx (the throat area), the tongue, the teeth, the lips, the palate and the nose. The role of these organs in the production of speech sounds is discussed below.

1.      The Respiratory System:

i.                    The Chest Muscles – The chest muscles help the lungs to contract and expand. It is this movement of the lungs which provides the air stream for the articulation of speech sounds. 

ii.                  The Lungs – The lungs provide the air stream which is modified by the organs in the upper region to articulate the different sounds used in speech. The air exhaled by the lungs is known as the egressive air stream. All the speech sounds used in different languages are produced with the help of this air expelled by the lungs. The air inhaled by the lungs is known as the ingressive air stream. There are some extra-linguistic sounds used by the speakers of all languages in communication which are produced with the help of the ingressive air stream.

2.      The Phonatory System:

i.                    The Larynx – The outgoing air stream started by the lungs is modified by the upper organs before it is released into the atmosphere. The first such modification is made by the vocal cords situated inside the larynx also known as the Adam’s apple. The larynx is a muscular structure made of cartilage at the end of the trachea. Its front part is prominent in the neck. It serves as a protective cage for the vocal cords situated in it.

ii.                  The Vocal Cords – The vocal cords are two flexible lip like structures inside the larynx. They are placed horizontally from front to back and are joined at the front but separated at the back. For the production of speech sounds. They can assume a large number of positions but three of them are important from the point of view of the production of speech sounds -   

a.      Held wide apart – This is the position of the vocal cords during normal breathing. When they are in this position, the air can pass though the wide space between them freely without causing them to vibrate. Many sounds in every language are produced with the vocal cords in this position. They are called voiceless sounds. [p,t,k,s,h,f] are some of the sounds used in English which are produced with the vocal cords in this position.

b.   Held Loosely together – When the vocal cords are held loosely together, the air has to be forced through them. And when the breath air is forced through them, they begin to vibrate. This vibration produces a humming sound. This humming sound is called phonation or voice. It is an inseparable part of some sounds in every language. These sounds are called voiced sounds. [b, d, g, v, z, dz, v, r, l, m, n] etc. are some such sounds used in English.

c.       Held Tightly Together – When the vocal cords are held tightly together, the air passage is completely closed. This is the position assumed by them when we cough or try to lift a heavy load. The pressure of the air expelled by the lungs builds up behind them. When they are separated, the blocked air rushes out suddenly and an explosive sound called the glottal stop is produced. This sound is not a sound recognised as a speech sound in any language but many English speakers substitute it for [p, t, or k] in some words. It is also a part of the forceful articulation of initial vowel sounds in words like empty, utter, all, open etc. 

3.      The Articulatory System – 

i.                    The pharynx – The pharynx is the part of the breathing system stretching from the top of the larynx to the backmost part of the tongue. The changes in the shape of this area caused by the movements of the organs around it can affect the quality of the sound being produced.

ii.    The Lips – The two lips block the breath air when they make a contact with each other. Pressure of the breath air builds up behind them. When they are parted, bilabial sounds like p and b are produced. If the air is allowed to pass out through the nose, the nasal bilabial sound m is produced.

The lower lip may be brought close to the upper teeth without making a firm contact. When the air is forced through the narrow gap between the teeth and the lip, friction is produced. This is what happens when sounds like f and v are produced. 

The lips may be rounded and projected forward. When they are spread again, the sound w is produced.

iii.    The Teeth – The initial sounds in the words three and there are produced by bringing the tip and blade of the tongue close to the back of the upper teeth and allowing the breath air to escape through the narrow gap with friction. If the tongue is allowed to make a firm contact with the teeth and then is removed, Hindi and Punjabi sounds which the speakers of these languages often substitute for these English sounds are produced. The lower lip comes close to the upper teeth in a similar way for the articulation of f and v.

iv.    The Palate – The roof of the mouth beyond the upper teeth is called the palate. It can be divided into three parts – the ridge like raised part immediately above the teeth is known as the teeth ridge or the alveolar ridge, the hard part of the roof above the ridge is known as the hard palate and the soft part at the end is called the soft palate or the velum. The hanging part at the end of the palate is called the uvula.

a.      The Teeth (Alveolar) Ridge – For the articulation of sounds like t, d and n, the tip and blade of the tongue make a firm contact with the teeth ridge. For the articulation of sounds like s and z, the tip and blade come close to the teeth ridge but leave a narrow gap for the air to escape with friction. For the articulation of l and r also, the tip and blade make a contact with the ridge while the air is allowed to escape on one or both sides of the tongue.

b.      The Hard Palate – The front of the tongue is raised towards the hard palate for the articulation of j, the first sound in the word yes. The tip also forms a contact with the front part of the hard palate for the articulation of the initial sounds of the words chat and judge. For the articulation of the first sound of shop and the last sound of rouge, the front of the tongue comes close to the hard palate while the air continues to escape with friction.

c.       The Soft Palate – The back of the tongue makes a firm contact with the soft palate for the articulation of k and g and the last sound of sing.

d.      The Uvula – The uvula can be raised to shut off the nasal passage or lowered to leave it open. It is raised for the articulation of nasal sounds like m, n, and the last sound of sing  but lowered for the articulation of oral sounds which include all the consonants of English except these three and all the vowel sounds used in English. The air escapes only through the mouth during the articulation of these oral sounds. If the uvula is lowered and at the same time, there is no obstruction at any point in the mouth, the air escapes through both the mouth and the nose and nasalised vowel sounds found in some languages are produced.

v.  The Tongue – The tongue has four parts, the pointed part at the extreme front known as the tip, a small part of the tongue behind the tip known as the blade, the part behind the blade and below the hard palate known as the front and the part lying below the soft part known as the back. The tip and blade articulate with the upper teeth for the articulation of the initial sounds of three and there and with the teeth ridge for the articulation of t, d, n, s, z, l and r. The front articulates with the front part of the hard palate for the articulation of the first sounds of chat and judge, is raised towards the hard palate for the articulation of j and comes close to the hard palate for the first sound of shop and the last sound of rouge. The back of the tongue articulates with the soft palate for the articulation of k and g and the last sound of sing.  

Active and Passive Articulators

Those organs which move towards another organ to make contact or narrowing during the articulation of consonants are known as active articulators

Those organs which remain fixed in their place are called passive articulators.

For example, for the initial sounds of pen and bag, the lower lip is the active articulator and the upper lip is the passive articulator. For the initial sounds of tin and din, the tip and blade of the tongue are the active articulator and the alveolar ridge (teeth ridge) is the passive articulator. And for the articulation of the initial sounds of cat and get, the back of the tongue is the active articulator and the hard palate (velum) is the passive articulator.  

3.   Description and Classification of Speech Sounds

Sounds can primarily be classified into two categories: Consonants And vowels.

Consonants – Phonetically, consonants are sounds which require one of the following for their articulation:

i.                  a contact between two organs of speech resulting in total blocking of the passage of the exhaled air

ii.              narrowing (constriction) of the oral passage sufficient to produce friction when the breath air is forced out through it.

Linguistically, consonants are sounds which function as marginal elements in a syllable and take the indefinite article ‘a’ before them when one is required.

Vowels: Phonetically, Vowels are sounds which do not require any closure or narrowing sufficient to produce friction when breath air is forced through it for their articulation

Linguistically, vowels are sounds that function as the central element in a syllable and take the indefinite article ‘an’ before them when required instead of a.

A.  Description and Classification of Consonants:

a.   Description of consonants:

While describing consonants, we have to provide the following information:

1.      Whether the air stream required is set into motion by the lungs or by some other organ. If it is set into motion by the lungs, the sound is pulmonic. Otherwise, it is non-pulmonic.

2.      Whether the air stream required flows inward or outward. If it flows inward, the sound is ingressive. If it flows outward, the sound is egressive.

3.      Whether the vocal cords vibrate or not. If they are held wide apart, they will not and the sound will be voiceless. If they are held loosely together, they will vibrate and the sound will be voiced.

4.      Whether the soft palate is lowered or raised. If it is raised, the sound will be oral. If it is lowered and the oral cavity is blocked at some point, the sound will be nasal. And if the oral cavity is also open and the air escapes both through the mouth and the nose, the sound will be nasalised.

5.      The place of articulation. At which point is the contact or narrowing required for the articulation made. We have to tell which active articulator makes contact with or comes close to which passive articulator. The class of the consonant is named after the passive articulator.

6.      The manner of articulation. We have to say whether the oral passage is totally blocked by making a firm contact between two organs or whether there is only a narrowing sufficient to produce friction.

All the sounds of English are pulmonic and egressive. Therefore, while describing an English consonant, the first two items are generally not included. Only information regarding the last three is provided.

b.   Classification of Consonants

Consonantal sounds are classified in two ways – i. According to the place of articulation ii. According to the manner of articulation.

a.   Classification of consonants according to the place of articulation:

On the basis of their place of articulation, consonants are classified into the following categories:

1.      Bilabial – Bilabial consonants are those sounds for the articulation of which the two lips make contact with each other. Examples of bilabial consonants from English are p, b, and m.

Another sub-category of bilabials covers the sounds for which the two lips do not touch each other, nor do they come so close as to produce friction when the breath air is forced out through them. The lips are first rounded and protruded and then spread out. The English sound so produced is w.

2.      Labio-dental - The labio-dental consonants are articulated with the help of the lower lip and the upper teeth. The two organs may make contact with each other or just come close enough to each other to produce friction when the air flows out through the narrow opening. Examples from English are f and v for which the lip and the teeth come close to each other.

3.      Dental – The consonants are those for which the tip and blade of the tongue form contact with the back of the upper teeth or come so close to them that friction is produced when the air escapes through the narrow opening. The dental consonants found in English are the initial sounds of the words ‘throw’ and ‘there’.

4.      Alveolar – For the articulation of these consonants, the tip  or both the tip and blade of the tongue make a contact with the teeth (alveolar) ridge or come very close to it as a result of which, friction is produced when the air escapes through the two. The sounds t, d, n, r, l, s, and z used in English are alveolar consonants.

5.      Post-alveolar – For the articulation of the post alveolar consonants, the tip of the tongue articulates with the rear part of the teeth ridge. In English the initial r sound in rail and the r sound in tree are pot alveolar consonants.

6.      Retroflex – The tongue is curled back and the underside of the tip of the tongue   touches the front part of the hard palate for the articulation of these sounds. There is no retroflex consonant in English but we have some such sounds in Hindi, Punjabi and Urdu.

7.      Palato-alveolar – These sounds have two simultaneous articulations. The blade of the tongue touches the teeth ridge and at the same time, the front of the tongue is raised towards the hard palate. The initial consonants in the words ‘church’ and ‘jug’ are palate alveolar.

8.      Palatal – For the articulation of the palatal consonants, the front of the tongue touches the hard palate or comes close to it. In English, the sound j which occurs as the first sound in the word ‘yes’ is a palatal consonant.

9.      Velar – For the articulation of the velar consonants, the back of the tongue touches the soft palate or comes close to it. The English sounds k and g and the last sound of song are velar.

10.  Uvular – For these sounds, the back of the tongue comes close enough to the uvula to produce when the air escapes through the narrow space between the two. The first sound in the Urdu word ‘qalam’ and ‘Qarib” is uvular.

11.  Glottal – The articulators for the glottal sounds are the two vocal cords which either form a closure by coming close together or narrowing sufficient to produce friction but not vibration. The sound h is a glottal sound. Some English speakers use the glottal stop in place of p, t, and k when they occur in the middle of or at the end of a word. 

b.   Classification of consonants according to the manner of articulation

A consonant cannot be identified with the help of the place of articulation alone. We have also to indicate its manner of articulation. The manner of articulation includes a reference to the type of closure or contact required for the articulation of the sound as well as the manner of release of the air.

According to the manner of articulation, consonants can be divided into the following categories:

1.   Stops – Stops are consonants for the articulation of which a closure is made at some point in the vocal tract which blocks the escape of the air through the mouth. The pressure of air builds up behind the closure. When the blocked air is released, the sound in question is produced. Depending on the manner of release of the blocked air, stops are sub-divided into three classes.

i.                  Plosives – For the production of these sounds, the blocked air is released by a sudden abrupt parting of the organs making the closure. The air escapes with a sudden rush producing a sound like that of an explosion. There are six plosives in English - p, b, t, d, k, and g.

ii.              Affricates – For the articulation of the affricates, the blocked air is released slowly because the organs making the closure are parted slowly. Therefore, the sound is accompanied by an audible friction like the hissing of a snake instead of a plosive sound. English has two affricates – The initial sounds in ‘church’ and ‘jug’.

iii.           Nasals – For the articulation of the nasals, the blocked air is released through the nose rather than the mouth. Whereas for the articulation of the plosives and affricates, both the oral and the nasal cavity are closed, for the articulation of the nasals, only the oral cavity is closed and the air continues to escape through the nose. In English, m and n and the final sound of ‘song’ are nasal sounds.

2.   Rolls – For the articulation of a roll, no closure is required. Instead, the tip of the tongue makes several taps against the alveolar ridge or just behind it or the uvula against the back of the tongue. As a result, the air can pass only intermittently between the articulators. Sometimes, the initial r in words like rock and rat is produced like that by some English speakers.

3.   Taps – For the production of a tap, one organ moves towards another, makes a momentary contact and then goes back to its position of rest. The tip of the tongue may tap against the alveolar ridge or the uvula against the back of the tongue. The r sound, when it occurs between vowels, as in the word ‘very’ is articulated as a tap by many English speakers. In American English, t and d are often realised as a flap when they occur between vowel sounds as in letter, matter, madder, a lot of, and ladder.

4.   Flaps - For the production of a flap also, one organ moves towards another and makes a momentary contact with it. But in this case, instead of withdrawing to its position of rest, it goes on to another position required for the production of the succeeding sound. The sound given by the last letter in the row beginning with p in Hindi and Punjabi is a retroflex flap, as in the word ‘torna’ (to break).

5.   Laterals – A lateral consonant requires only a partial closure which is effected by the tip and blade of the tongue touching the teeth ridge while the air continues to escape on one or on both sides of the tongue. Because the air continues to escape continuously, the sound is a continuant. The English sound l is a lateral. The sound r is also articulated by some speakers as a lateral.

6.   Fricatives – Fricatives are consonant which require only a narrowing sufficient to produce audible friction when the escapes through the narrow gap. One organ comes so close to the other that the air cannot escape freely. It has to be forced out and as we do so audible friction is produced.

7.   Frictionless continuants – For the articulation of a frictionless continuant also, narrowing is required but it is not of a degree high enough to produce friction. The organs remain sufficiently away from each other to allow the air to pass without friction. The common variety of r in English is a frictionless continuant.

8.   Semi vowels – Semi vowels are actually vowels from the point of view of their articulation. They do not require any closure or narrowing sufficient to produce audible friction. They are treated as consonants only because they function like consonants in the phonology of the language. They function as marginal elements in a syllable, not as the central element. Also like the consonants, they take the indefinite article a instead of an before them. The sounds w and j, the first sounds in the words ‘work’ and ‘yes’, are semi vowels.

c.    Description of consonants by using three term labels

For the sake of brevity, sometimes the consonants are described by using three term labels.

The first label tells whether the sound is voiced or voiceless.

The second label refers to the place of articulation.

The third one refers to the manner of articulation.

For example, the sound p is described as a voiceless bilabial plosive and the sound v is described as a voiced labio dental fricative. Similarly, the sound n is described as a voiced alveolar nasal.

Phonetic Transcription

Phoneticians have devised a set of phonetic symbols represent the different sounds used in all the known languages of the world. This set is known as the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA). The salient feature of the IPA is that in it, there is a perfect one to one correspondence between sounds and symbols. There is only one symbol to represent a sound and only that symbol and no other can be used to denote it. No symbol represents two sounds and no sound is represented by more symbols than one.

These symbols help us to represent the pronunciation of words unambiguously. When the pronunciation of a word is represented by using the symbols of the IPA, the representation is called phonetic transcription.

B. Description and Classification of Vowels

i.                  Description of vowels

Vowels are sounds that do not require any contact between two organs or narrowing of a degree high enough to produce friction when the exhaled air is forced through it. They are a hum produced by the vocal cords held close enough to produce friction when the exhaled air is forced out through them. This hum is modified by the shapes and sizes assumed by the pharynx, the nasal cavity and the mouth.

The differences that distinguish one vowel from the other are differences of the quality and quantity of sound.

The differences of quantity result in the differences of length. Some vowels like the vowel in ‘teeth’ are long and others like the vowel in ‘ship’ are short. So the difference of quantity is basically a difference of length.

The differences of quality are more complex. The important factors which determine these differences are the shape assumed by the lips, the position of the tongue and the soft palate. Therefore, to describe vowels, we have to describe

1.   The position of the soft palate: whether it is raised or lowered. If it is lowered, the vowel is nasalised. But if is raised to shut off the nasal passage, the vowel is oral.

2.   The shape assumed by the lips: whether they are rounded or unrounded. If unrounded, whether they are neutral or spread. The vowels articulate with lips rounded are called rounded vowels and those articulated with lips neutral or spread are called unrounded vowels.

3.   The shape assumed by the tongue: which part of the tongue is raised and how much it is raised. Vowels articulated with the tongue raised to the maximum level are close vowels and those for which the tongue remains at the lowest level are called open vowels. If the tongue is raised to a level below the close level, the vowel is half close and if it is raised to the level above the open level, the vowel is called a half open vowel

Of these three, only the shape of the lips can be observed by the eyes.

The position of the soft palate can only be judged through auditory perception i.e. by using the judgement of the ears. If the sound is nasalised, it shows that the soft palate is lowered. If it is not, it means that the soft palate is raised.

The position of the tongue can be felt only when it assumes certain extreme positions. For example, we can feel that the front of the tongue is very high when we articulate the vowel in the word ‘teeth’. Or we can feel that the back is raised to a high level when the vowel in the word ‘pool’ is articulated. Similarly, it can be felt to be very low for the articulation of the vowel in the word ‘half’.

Generally, while describing a vowel, the position of the soft palate is not stated. It is assumed that it is in the raised position unless it is stated to be otherwise and the sound is an oral one. Incidentally, there are no nasalised vowel in English.

                                                                                                            i.      The Lips

The lips can assume many positions. They are spread for the vowel in ‘teeth’, neutral for the vowel in ‘bird’, open for the vowel in ‘bard’, open rounded for the vowel in ‘hot’, close rounded for the vowel in ‘cool’. However, normally, the open, spread and neutral positions in which there is no rounding of the lips are described as unrounded and the other two positions are described as rounded.

                                                                                                        ii.      The Tongue – The Part of the Tongue Raised

For the sake of describing the vowels, the tongue is divided into three parts – the front, the back and the centre. If the front of the tongue is raised for the articulation of a vowel, the vowel is described as a front vowel, if the back is raised, it is said to be a back vowel and if the centre is raised, the vowel is a central vowel.

                                                                                                     iii.      The Tongue – The Level of Raising of the Tongue

Any part of the tongue can be raised for the production of vowel sounds. But there is a limit. We cannot raise it beyond a certain point because, if we do so, it will give rise to audible friction and the sound will become a consonant. Similarly, any point of the tongue can be lowered but only up to a certain point. Beyond that, it cannot go.

A vowel sound which is produced with the tongue raised to the highest possible level without producing audible friction or nearly so is called a close vowel. On the other hand, a vowel produced with any part of the tongue held as low as possible or nearly so is called an open vowel. The vowels in the words teeth and cool are close vowels and the vowel in the word half is an open vowel.

For further differentiating vowels on the basis of the height to which the tongue is raised, we have to mark two more imaginary points between the close and open so that now we have four levels of the raising of the tongue. These have to be equally distant from each other. The point which is near to the close level is called the half close and the one which is near the open level is the half open level. Now we can say that the vowel in teeth is a front close vowel and the vowel in tip is a front half close vowel. Similarly, the vowel in sat can be described as a front half open and the vowel in art can be described as a back open vowel. 

The Vowel Diagram and the description of vowels:

We can also use a scale based on the Cardinal Vowel Diagram to describe vowel sounds. The vowel diagram is a quadrilateral figure which represents the shape of our mouth. The two horizontal lines represent the space between the extreme front and the extreme back. The upper line is longer than the lower line because the space at the top of the mouth is greater than the space at the bottom. The side lines represent the height when the mouth is fully open. The upper line is divided into four equal parts and two equidistant points are fixed on it. From these points, we draw two lines, one parallel to the line on the left which represents the front of the mouth and the other parallel to the line on the right which represents the back. These lines meet at a level slightly below the half open level to from a triangle which represents the middle area of the mouth. Two lines parallel to the upper and lower line are drawn to represent the half close and the half open level. Now we can show the quality of a pure vowel by marking it on the diagram with a bold dot. The diphthongs can be represented on this diagram with the help of an arrow with its head pointing to the position required for the second element towards which the tongue glides and the starting point shows the position required by the first element of the diphthong from where the glide begins.

Daniel Jones, who gave this figure, has also prepared a cardinal vowel scale based on this figure. Stating with the front close position, he moved the tongue slowly down to the front open position. The lips were kept spread or neutrally open. Thus, he identified two points equidistant from the two extreme positions auditorily as well as spatially. The vowel quality with the tongue in these four positions was noted and given numbers from C-i to C-iv. Then the back of the tongue was slightly raised while the lips remained spread. Thus the fifth vowel quality was identified and given the number C-v. From this point again, he raised the tongue slowly and identified two points between this point and the back close position. The lips were progressively rounded as the tongue moved up so that they became fully rounded by the time the tongue reached the back close position. The vowel qualities at these three points were again noted and given numbers C-vi to C-viii. Thus a series of eight primary vowel qualities was established. Then he repeated the experiment with the lip position rounded for the first five positions and unrounded for the last three. The eight vowel qualities were again noted and given numbers from C-ix to C-xvi. Thus a series of eight secondary cardinal vowels was established. Two more cardinal vowels, one rounded and one unrounded, were established by raising the centre of the tongue and were given the numbers C-xvii and C-xviii. All these vowels were allotted phonetic symbols as well as the numbers.

These eighteen vowels are not the vowels of any particular language. They represent only the kind of voice which is produced by holding the tongue and the lips in these positions. Some of them but not all are actually found in some languages. But their quality and their number differs from language to language. Other vowels actually used by different languages are slightly different from them.

The purpose of establishing this cardinal vowel scale was to solve the problem of describing vowel sounds. We can now describe a vowel by referring to the cardinal vowel or vowels which it closely resembles and then pointing out how it differs from them if it does.

ii.              Classification of vowels

Vowels are classified first as i. pure vowels and ii. diphthongs or vowel glides.

Pure Vowels - Pure vowels are vowels which have a uniform quality from the beginning to the end. The vowels in the words ‘heat, hit, bed, bad, art, cot, court, pull, pool, bird, but’ and the initial vowel of the word ‘accept’ are all pure vowels.

Diphthongs – Diphthongs or vowel glides are glides from one vowel quality to another. To begin with, the tongue is held in position for the first element of the diphthong but moves quickly towards the position required by the second element. They are, in fact, combinations of two vowel sounds but are counted as one vowel.

a.   Classification according to the part of the tongue raised:

Here, we have three classes.

1.   Front vowels – those for which the front of the tongue is raised.

2.   Back vowels – Those for which the back of the tongue is raised.

3.   Central vowels – those for which the central part of the tongue is raised.

b.   Classification according to the level of raising of the tongue:

We have four major categories based on the height to which the tongue is raised.

1.   Close – Those for which the tongue is raised to the highest point possible without producing friction

2.   Open – Those for which the tongue is held at the lowest possible level.

3.   Half close – Those for which the tongue is raised to the point nearer to the close than to the open level.

4.   Half open - Those for which the tongue is raised to a point nearer to the open than to the close level.

c.    Classification according to the lip position

1.   Rounded - Those for which the lips are rounded.

2.    Unrounded – Those for which the lips are kept in the neutral or spread position.

d.   Classification according to the position of the soft palate:

1.   Oral – Those for which the soft palate is raised and the nasal passage is shut off and the air comes out through the mouth only. All the vowel sounds used in English, whether pure vowels or diphthongs are oral.

2.   Nasalised – Those for which the soft palate is lowered and the nasal and the oral passage both remain open to allow the air to escape both through the mouth and the nose. However, there are no nasalised vowels in English. But nasalised vowels are found in Hindi and Punjabi.

4       Skills of Effective Speaking

A major part of organisational communication and of communication in normal life is oral communication which involves speech. A major weakness of oral communication is that it cannot be rewound and listened to repeatedly till we are satisfied that we have understood it properly. Therefore it is very important to know what the important speaking skills are and to master them in order to become a good communicator. The following components of speech must be paid special attention to if we want our communication to be effective and efficient.

1.      Proper knowledge of the Phonemes of the language – One must have complete and correct knowledge of the phonemes of the language one is using. Phonemes are the sounds that a particular language makes use of. One who does not possess this knowledge may use a sound different from the one he should and this will make his speech unintelligible.

2.      Correct articulation of sounds – Phonetics teach us how different sounds are articulated. Phonetic knowledge is as necessary as phonemic knowledge. It is not enough to know what sounds a language uses. One must also know how those sounds are articulated. In the absence of such knowledge, we may articulate a sound different from the one we think we are using. That may make it difficult for the listener to understand us.

3.      Correct pronunciation – It is very important to use the correct pronunciation of words. If a word is mispronounced, it may not be understood at all or may be misunderstood. Without correct pronunciation of the words of the language being used, it is impossible to get a message across efficiently.

4.      Correct word stress – In some languages, word stress is as important a part of correct pronunciation as the sounds. In these languages, all the syllables (parts into which a spoken word is divided) are not given equal stress. Some are stressed more than the others. English gives maximum stress to one syllable in a polysyllabic word which is called primary stress. In some words, another syllable may be given a slightly less stress which is called secondary stress. All the other syllables are articulated with considerably less force than these two syllables. Stress on a wrong syllable can confuse the listener who is used to hearing a different syllable being stressed.

5.      Correct sentence stress – All the words in a sentence are not stressed equally in some languages. So it is important to know which words are stressed in the language in question and which are not. For example, in English, nouns, interrogative pronouns, verbs, adjectives and adverbs are normally stressed and auxiliary verbs, pronouns other than interrogative pronouns, prepositions, conjunctions and articles are left unstressed. It is also important to know when this general rule is violated and words normally stressed are left unstressed and those which are generally not stressed are stressed. Wrong use of sentence stress can create problems for the listener.

6.      Proper use of contrastive stress – Words which are the focus of the contrast of meaning intended to be communicated by the speaker are stressed even more heavily than the other stressed words in the sentence. This stress makes it clear to the listener where the contrast of meaning lies and helps him grasp the correct intended meaning. This is very important because a sentence containing exactly the same words can convey different meanings if the contrastive stress is changed. In fact, by varying the contrastive stress, we can make the same string of words serve as various sentences.

7.      Proper intonation. Intonation is another important constituent of spoken language. We have to learn the correct use of different patterns of rising and falling tones. Intonation is capable of performing several grammatical functions. By using the rising tone at the end of a statement, we can change it into a yes/no question without moving the auxiliary in front of the subject.  Similarly, if an imperative sentences is delivered with a falling final tone, it serves as a command and if the falling tone is replaced by the rising tone, the sentence becomes a very polite request. The use of the rising tone in the middle of a sentence signals its incompleteness. The use of the falling tone at such a place would give the impression that the speaker has reached the end of the sentence and confuse the listener.

8.      Correct rhythm – Rhythm is another important constituent of speech. Different languages use different rhythmical patterns. Some languages use syllable timed rhythm in which the time given to stressed and unstressed syllables depends on their number as each syllable, whether stressed or unstressed, is given the same amount of time. The rhythm used in English is stress timed rhythm in which unstressed syllables between stressed syllables are given approximately the same amount of time as one stressed syllable.

9.      Correct pauses – Pauses also occupy an important place in connected speech.  They serve the same purpose as punctuation in written language. A long pause at the end of a sentence and a short pause where a comma is used with a pause of a middle length where we have a semicolon is a general rule of speech. A long pause before an   important piece of information prepares the listener to receive it by arousing his curiosity and another long pause after it gives him time to assimilate it and recognise its importance.

10.  Correct use of weak forms – There are some words in some languages like English which have two forms, a strong or full form and a weak or shortened form. One must learn to use them correctly. They help the speaker to maintain rhythm where a string of unstressed syllables has to be used in between two stressed syllables.

11.  Volume – Another skill that we need is the sense to use the right volume according to the requirement of the situation. We must speak loudly enough to be audible to our listener. But it is improper to shout unnecessarily. While addressing a large audience, one has to use high volume in order to make oneself audible. On the other hand, we must keep it low when speaking to a person sitting in front of us. The volume of voice also has to be varied according to the emotion being expressed. We raise our volume when we are angry. Similarly. It is considered rude to speak loudly in front of an elder or a senior.

12.  Modulation of voice – It is wrong to keep using the same pitch, volume and tone all the time. Variation in these parameters according to the requirement of the message is necessary to save our utterances from being flat and monotonous.

13.  Right pace – We must also take care of the pace at which we speak. We should speak at a pace that our listener is able to keep pace with. If we speak too fast, the listener may not be able to get all that we communicate. On the other hand, if we speak too slowly, the listener may get fed up with having to wait too long for the words and may lose interest in what we are communicating.

 

5      Components of an Effective Talk

The general impression is that if a man has adequate knowledge of the subject, he can give an effective talk. It is thought that knowledge of the subject is the only requirement of an effective talk. There is no doubt that no good talk can be given without adequate knowledge of the topic. But knowledge is not everything. It is only a part and a small, though important, part. There are many other things which contribute to the effectiveness of a talk. Giving a talk is an art and like all arts, it has to be acquired, cultivated and practised to achieve perfection.

Given below are the essential components of an effective talk.

1.     Audibility – The first requirement of an effective talk is audibility. If all the members of the audience are not able to hear every word of uttered by the speaker, the talk can never be successful. Those who are unable to hear will not only fail to get the message but also create disturbance by talking among themselves.

2.     Clarity – Clarity is the next essential component. Every word uttered by the speaker should be clear to the audience. To achieve clarity, the speaker must pronounce all the words correctly. He must use the correct sounds as well as correct word stress. Right sentence stress, rhythmical delivery, correct contrastive stress, correct intonation and judicious use of the pauses help the speaker to achieve clarity. If a speaker is able to do all that, every word that he speaks will be clearly understood by every member of the audience.

3.     Right pace – Pace is another important component of an effective talk. If the speaker speaks at too fast a pace, much of what he says will not be understood by his audience. And if he uses too slow a pace, the audience will get fed up and may start feeling sleepy.

4.     Effective use of tone – The tone of the speaker must match the feelings he is expressing and the feelings that he wants to arouse in the audience. It lends warmth and sincerity to the talk. Never should the speaker use a harsh tone as it is sure to be resented by the audience. Tone also contributes to the clarity of the talk. A talk delivered in a monotone can never be impressive. Modulation of tone lends variety to the talk and makes it lively and interesting.

5.     Appropriate pitch – Proper use of pitch is a must to impress the audience. Low pitch accompanied by deep breathing shows confidence whereas high pitch and shallow breathing betray nervousness and lack of confidence. Variation of the pitch is also necessary to avoid monotony.

6.     Judicious use of body language - No talk can be effective without the proper use of body language. One must use body language to support and supplement his ideas. Body language performs two very important functions. It serves to clarify and reinforce the ideas being expressed. Besides, body language lends liveliness to the talk and helps the speaker to hold the audience’s interest.

7.     Relevance of matter – All the information given, ideas expressed and facts supplied should be relevant to the subject of the talk. Every word spoken, every bit of information should throw light on the topic chosen for the talk. If it lacks relevance, the talk will be reduced to a farce. The audience will start raising eyes wondering which way the speaker is heading.

8.     Proper organisation of matter – The information being given must be properly classified and organised to create the right effect. Ideas and facts should be arranged logically in the ascending or descending order of importance. It may sometimes be advisable to arrange the matter in chronological order. Pyramid or inverted pyramid structure are the other ways to arrange the material of the talk. The former gives the arguments first and then draws the conclusions. The latter begins with the conclusions and then proceeds to support them with arguments and facts. The choice of the pattern of arrangement depends to a large extent on the topic. But it must in any case follow a suitable pattern. Haphazardly arranged ideas always lead to chaos and confusion.

9.     Verbal signals of transition – The speaker has to keep moving from one kind of information to another. To carry the audience with him, it is essential for the speaker to signal though words the transition from one type to another, from one idea to another. These verbal signals help the audience to move with him without any problem. They do not feel lost when the speaker switches over from one part to the other.

10. Audience awareness – The speaker must be aware of the needs and interests of the audience, their intellectual level, their educational level and their command of the language. What he tells them, how he tells it and the words he uses are all determined by his awareness of the audience. He must choose a topic that they are interested in, give them the information they need and give it in words that they understand. Otherwise, he will not be able to have and hold their attention.

11. Simple Language – As far as possible, the language used should be simple which every member can understand. If all the members do not belong to the same field of specialisation, jargon should scrupulously be avoided. However, it may be used if everyone in the audience are expected to be familiar with it.

12. Interesting and amusing – A dry, dull and drab talk can never be effective. To keep the interest of the audience, the speaker must make the talk interesting by choosing amusing language, throwing in interesting anecdotes, injecting into it a sprinkling of humour and varying his tone continuously.

13. Relief – Throwing in relief is also another way of making a talk effective. A serious talk should not be serious throughout. Nor should a comic one be comic all through. A touch of seriousness in a light talk and a sprinkling of light touches in a serious talk enhances its beauty and appeal. All know that excess of everything is bad.

14. Heeding the feedback – The speaker should keep his eyes and ears open and pay due attention to the feedback that he is receiving. A positive feedback will enthuse him and make him give more than he had planned. But more important than the positive feedback is the negative feedback. If at any stage of the talk, he finds that the audience are losing interest in his talk, he must think of doing something to keep them interested.

Eye contact – The speaker must keep regular eye contact with the audience. It helps him to hold their attention as well as to keep an eye on the feedback. He is also able to strike a rapport with the audience through his eyes. But an important thing is that he should not keep his eyes focused on one section of the audience all the time. He should keep moving his eyes from one part of the audience to the other so that no section of the audience feels ignored.